The Battle of the Science Standards

and what YOU can do about it


At issue: The California Commission for the Establishment of Academic Content and Performance Standards recently prepared and recommended a set of Proposed Science Standards for grades K-12 science. This document is sometimes referred to as the "Seaborg Standards" because Glenn Seaborg was the chair of the Commission's science subject matter committee. It is now in the hands of the State Board of Education (SBE), which is required by law to adopt science standards in some form by November 1, 1998. Public hearings on the standards are ongoing and will be completed at the September meeting of the SBE during the week of September 8. A conflict has arisen because the proposed standards are considerably different from the National Science Education Standards (NSES, National Research Council, 1996) and other national and state documents derived from them (e.g., the AAAS Benchmarks) The spoken criticism is that "this is just a list of facts to be memorized."

Principal Differences: We believe both sides to the conflict would agree that the following are true:

Brief arguments in favor of the Proposed Science Standards:

1) Freeing the standards from pedagogical prescription gives teachers permission to choose from and use a wide variety of teaching strategies so as to best match their own styles and the particular needs of their students. Good science teaching nonetheless requires a healthy mix of strategies, including but not limited to, hands-on experiments, reading about science, teacher directed lecture and discussion. Despite the rhetoric, "inquiry-based instruction," as it is practiced, is nothing more than a new name for an old (~100 years) method, AKA, e.g., project-based learning or situated learning. (Hirsch, 1996) Everyone would agree that it is difficult to design clean experiments to test hypotheses about how children best learn, but such passable data as exist do not support the extravagant claims being made for project-based schemes. (Hirsch, 1996) Specific to the domain of science, it is claimed that giving children open-ended investigations to do will allow them to develop the ability to think scientifically, since this is the "way scientists work." Even here, a recent study shows that young children can indeed learn to design unconfounded experiments, but only if explicitly taught to do so, not by open-ended activities. Moreover, such explicit instruction in the technique of controlling variables also improves the science content knowledge of the children. (Chen and Klahr, in press) At its worst, inquiry-based education reflects a postmodern deconstructivist view of science which is anti-science in its tone. (See Science Standards: An Update, by Alan Cromer)

2) There is no reason to believe that the vast majority of students will use mastery of very low-level standards to spring ahead to more difficult tasks, unless they are taught them. Given the propensity of schools and teachers to "teach to the test," setting low standards for everyone is a dangerous policy. Standards are more likely to produce a ceiling to student achievement rather than the desired floor. We agree that the Proposed Science Standards are advanced for many of today's unprepared students. However, their implementation from grade K on, along with implementation of the state's new and rigorous mathematics and English standards, will eventually bring students to a much higher level. Our students are capable of much more than we currently demand of them. They are fundamentally capable of achieving what students in other countries achieve. (Please note that the express intention of the NSES is that they apply to all students as currently prepared.)

3) The issue of "breadth vs. depth" has always been tricky, but we don't agree that less is necessarily more. Moreover, we argue that basic principles need to be learned and understood before they can be meaningfully applied to complex problems, so pre-collegiate education should focus on fundamental science principles. (See below for a sample comparison.)

4) Grade-span expectations leave too much leeway for significant repetition and omission of material, particularly in our very mobile society. Carefully constructed grade-by-grade standards, on the other hand, can provide the impetus for the construction of curricula which build logically and coherently, and which grow in sophistication, systematically, from year to year. Also, when content is spread out over several years, as in NSES, no single teacher is accountable for any particular part of it.

5) Accountability also demands specificity in the standards. So does equity, in the sense that students are entitled to the same high quality education no matter where they find themselves.

Sample comparison of content: In the NSES, the entire physical science strand for high school consists of the following categories:

This would not be bad if those topics were dealt with thoroughly and in depth. Are they? In the left-hand column below is listed all the content in the first two NSES physical science categories (one-third of the total physical science) for high school. In the right-hand column is the treatment of similar material as dealt with the Proposed Science Standards
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FIRST TWO OF SIX HIGH SCHOOL PHYSICAL SCIENCE STANDARDS IN THE NSES 

GRADE 9-12: 

STRUCTURE OF ATOMS 

  • Matter is made of minute particles called atoms, and atoms are composed of even smaller components. These components have measurable properties, such as mass and electrical charge. Each atom has a positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons. The electric force between the nucleus and electrons holds the atom together. 

    •  
  • The atom's nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons, which are much more massive than electrons. When an element has atoms that differ in the number of neutrons, these atoms are called different isotopes of the element. 
  • The nuclear forces that hold the nucleus of an atom together, at nuclear distances, are usually stronger than the electric forces that would make it fly apart. Nuclear reactions convert a fraction of the mass of interacting particles into energy, and they can release much greater amounts of energy than atomic interactions. Fission is the splitting of a large nucleus into smaller pieces. Fusion is the joining of two nuclei at extremely high temperature and pressure, and is the process responsible for the energy of the sun and other stars.
  • Radioactive isotopes are unstable and undergo spontaneous nuclear reactions, emitting particles and/or wavelike radiation. The decay of any one nucleus cannot be predicted, but a large group of identical nuclei decay at a predictable rate. This predictability can be used to estimate the age of materials that contain radioactive isotopes.

    •  
STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER 
  • Atoms interact with one another by transferring or sharing electrons that are furthest from the nucleus. These outer electrons govern the chemical properties of the element. 

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  • An element is composed of a single type of atom. When elements are listed in order according to the number of protons (called the atomic number), repeating patterns of physical and chemical properties identify families of elements with similar properties. This "Periodic Table" is a consequence of the repeating pattern of outermost electrons and their permitted energies. 

    •  
  • Bonds between atoms are created when electrons are paired up by being transferred or shared. A substance composed of a single kind of atom is called an element. The atoms may be bonded together into molecules or crystalline solids. A compound is formed when two or more kinds of atoms bind together chemically. 

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  • The physical properties of compounds reflect the nature of the interactions among its molecules. These interactions are determined by the structure of the molecule, including the constituent atoms and the distances and angles between them. 

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  • Solids, liquids, and gases differ in the distances and angles between molecules or atoms and therefore the energy that binds them together. In solids the structure is nearly rigid; in liquids molecules or atoms move around each other but do not move apart; and in gases molecules or atoms move almost independently of each other and are mostly far apart. 

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  • Carbon atoms can bond to one another in chains, rings, and branching networks to form a variety of structures, including synthetic polymers, oils, and the large molecules essential to life.
 STANDARDS ADDRESSING SIMILAR CONCEPTS IN THE PROPOSED SCIENCE STANDARDS: 

GRADE 5: 

1. Elements and their combinations account for all the varied types of matter in the world. As a basis for understanding this concept, students know: 

a. when two substances react the reactants form products with properties that are different from the original reactants. 

b. all matter, including any living thing, is made of very small particles called atoms. Atoms combine to form molecules. 

c. some substances contain molecules made up of only one kind of atom, such as oxygen (O2) and nitrogen (N2). Substances containing only one type of atom are called elements. 

d. some substances contain only one type of molecule, but these molecules contain more than one type of atom, such as water (H2O), table salt (NaCl), and carbon dioxide (CO2). Such substances are called compounds. 

e. When substances react the atoms in the reactants are rearranged in the process of forming products. 

f. metals are a group of substances that have shared properties such as electrical and thermal conductivity. Some metals, such as aluminum (Al), iron (Fe), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), silver (Ag), gold (Au), are pure elements while others, such as steel and brass, are composed of a combination of elemental metals. 

g. that the periodic table organizes elements by their chemical properties. 

h. many different materials can be made from the atoms of a small number of elements. 

i. scientists have developed instruments that can create images of atoms and molecules showing that they are discrete and often occur in well ordered arrays. 

j. scientists use differences in chemicals and physical properties of substances to separate mixtures and use substances such as dyes and acid indicators which can be extracted from natural products such as leaves. 

GRADE 8: 

STRUCTURE OF MATTER 

3. Elements have distinct properties and atomic structure. All matter is comprised of one or more of approximately 100 elements. As a basis for understanding this concept, students know: 

a. the structure of the atom and how it is composed of protons, neutrons and electrons. 

b. compounds are formed by combining two or more different elements. Compounds have properties that are different from the constituent elements. 

c. atoms and molecules form solids by building up repeating patterns such as the crystal structure of NaCl or long chain polymers. 

d. the states (solid, liquid, gas) of matter depend on molecular motion. 

e. in solids the atoms are closely locked in position and can only vibrate, in liquids the atoms and molecules are more loosely connected and can collide with and move past one another, while in gases the atoms or molecules are free to move independently, colliding frequently. 

f. how to use the periodic table to identify elements in simple compounds. 

CHEMISTRY OF LIVING SYSTEMS (LIFE SCIENCE) 

6. Principles of chemistry underlie the functioning of biological systems. As a basis for understanding this concept, students know: 

a. carbon, because of its ability to combine in many ways with itself and other elements, has a central role in the chemistry of living things. 

b. living things are made of molecules largely consisting of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and sulfur. 

c. living things have many different kinds of molecules including small ones such as water and salt, and very large ones such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins and DNA. 

HIGH SCHOOL CHEMISTRY: 

Note: Asterisks denote items the commission felt were more advanced. These may not be required for "all" students. 

ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE 

1. The Periodic Table displays the elements in increasing atomic number and shows how periodicity of the physical and chemical properties of the elements relates to atomic structure. As a basis for understanding this concept students know: 

a. how to relate the position of an element in the Periodic Table to its atomic number and atomic mass. 

b. how to use the Periodic Table to identify metals, semimetals, nonmetals, and halogens. 

c. how to use the Periodic Table to identify alkali metals, alkaline earth metals and transition metals and identify trends in ionization energy, electronegativity, and in the relative size of ions and atoms. 

d. how to use the periodic table to determine the number of electrons available for bonding. 

e. the nucleus is much smaller in size than the atom yet contains most of its mass. 

f.* how to use the Periodic Table to identify the lanthanides and actinides, and transactinide elements, and know that the transuranium elements were man made 

g.* how to relate the position of an element in the periodic table to its quantum electron configuration, and reactivity with other elements in the table. 

h.* the experimental basis for Thomson's discovery of the electron, Rutherford's nuclear atom, Millikan's oil drop experiment, and Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect. 

i.* the experimental basis for the development of the quantum theory of atomic structure and the historical importance of the Bohr model of the atom. 

j.* spectral lines are a result of transitions of electrons between energy levels. Their frequency is related to the energy spacing between levels using Planck's relationship (E=h). 

CHEMICAL BONDS 

2. The enormous variety of biological, chemical, and physical properties of matter result from the ability of atoms to form bonds. This ability results from the electrostatic forces between electrons and protons and between atoms and molecules. As a basis for understanding this concept students know: 

a. atoms combine to form molecules by sharing electrons to form covalent or metallic bonds, or by exchanging electrons to form ionic bonds. 

b. chemical bonds between atoms in molecules such as H2, CH4, NH3, H2CCH2, N2, Cl2 and many large biological molecules are covalent. 

c. salt crystals such as NaCl are repeating patterns of positive and negative ions held together by electrostatic attraction. 

d. in a liquid the inter-molecular forces are weaker than in a solid, so that the molecules can move in a random pattern relative to one-another. 

e. how to draw Lewis dot structures. 

f.* how to predict the shape of simple molecules and their polarity from Lewis dot structures. 

g.* how electronegativity and ionization energy relate to bond formation. 

h.* how to identify solids and liquids held together by Van der Waals forces or hydrogen bonding, and relate these forces to volatility and boiling/melting point temperatures. 

ORGANIC AND BIOCHEMISTRY 

10. The bonding characteristics of carbon lead to the possibility of many different molecules of many sizes, shapes, and chemical properties. This provides the biochemical basis of life. As a basis for understanding this concept students know: 

a. large molecules (polymers) such as proteins, nucleic acids, and starch are formed by repetitive combinations of simple sub-units. 

b. the bonding characteristics of carbon lead to a large variety of structures ranging from simple hydrocarbons to complex polymers and biological molecules. 

c. that amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. 

d.* the first ten hydrocarbons (and simple isomers) which contain only single bonds, the first hydrocarbons with double and triple bonds, and simple molecules containing a benzene ring. 

e.* how to identify the functional groups which form the basis of alcohols, ketones, ethers, amines, esters, aldehydes, and organic acids. 

f.* the R-group structure of amino acids and how they combine to form the polypeptide backbone structure of proteins. 

NUCLEAR PROCESSES 

11. Nuclear processes are those in which an atomic nucleus changes; they include radioactive decay of naturally occurring and man-made isotopes and nuclear fission and fusion processes. As a basis for understanding this concept students know: 

a. the protons and neutrons in the nucleus are held together by strong nuclear forces which are stronger than the electromagnetic repulsion between the protons. 

b. the energy release per gram of material interacting is very large in nuclear processes compared to that in chemical processes. The corresponding change in mass (calculated by E=mc2) is small but significant in nuclear processes. 

c. many naturally occurring isotopes of elements are radioactive, as are isotopes formed in nuclear reactions. 

d. the three most common forms of radioactive decay (alpha, beta, gamma) and how the nucleus changes in each type of decay. 

e. energy can be liberated by either nuclear fusion or fission, and relate this to Einstein's equation E=mc2. 

f. alpha, beta, and gamma radiation produced in radioactive decay produce different amounts and kinds of damage in matter and have different ranges. 

References

Chen, Zhe, and David Klahr, All other things being equal: aquisition and transfer of the control of variable strategy (in press)

Hirsch, E.D. Jr., The Schools We Need & Why We Don't Have Them, Doubleday, NY, 1996
 
 

What YOU Can Do About the Science Standards

The Science Content Standards proposed by the California Commission for Academic Content and Performance Standards are:

These world-class standards will ensure that California's children get the science instruction they need to face the challenges of our future.

There is no reason to set the aspirations for California at feeble learning levels. It is time to set our expectations high enough to do justice to the ability of California's students to learn.

To support the Proposed Science Standards, write to the
State Board of Education at
gmcginit@cde.ca.gov

(please include your name and address and please send a copy to SCIENCE@mathematicallycorrect.com)